Author Correction: Evasion of immunosurveillance by genomic alterations of PPARγ/RXRα in bladder cancer.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Evasion of immunosurveillance by genomic alterations of PPARγ/RXRα in bladder cancer.

Muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) is an aggressive disease with limited therapeutic options. Although immunotherapies are approved for MIBC, the majority of patients fail to respond, suggesting existence of complementary immune evasion mechanisms. Here, we report that the PPARγ/RXRα pathway constitutes a tumor-intrinsic mechanism underlying immune evasion in MIBC. Recurrent mutations in RXRα at serine 427 (S427F/Y), through conformational activation of the PPARγ/RXRα heterodimer, and focal amplification/overexpression of PPARγ converge to modulate PPARγ/RXRα-dependent transcription programs. Immune cell-infiltration is controlled by activated PPARγ/RXRα that inhibits expression/secretion of inflammatory cytokines. Clinical data sets and an in vivo tumor model indicate that PPARγHigh/RXRαS427F/Y impairs CD8+ T-cell infiltration and confers partial resistance to immunotherapies. Knockdown of PPARγ or RXRα and pharmacological inhibition of PPARγ significantly increase cytokine expression suggesting therapeutic approaches to reviving immunosurveillance and sensitivity to immunotherapies. Our study reveals a class of tumor cell-intrinsic "immuno-oncogenes" that modulate the immune microenvironment of cancer.Muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) is a potentially lethal disease. Here the authors characterize diverse genetic alterations in MIBC that convergently lead to constitutive activation of PPARgamma/RXRalpha and result in immunosurveillance escape by inhibiting CD8+ T-cell recruitment.

Gene expression profiling reveals epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) genes can selectively differentiate eribulin sensitive breast cancer cells.

OBJECTIVES: Eribulin mesylate is a synthetic macrocyclic ketone analog of the marine sponge natural product halichondrin B. Eribulin is a mechanistically unique inhibitor of microtubule dynamics. In this study, we investigated whether selective signal pathways were associated with eribulin activity compared to paclitaxel, which stabilizes microtubules, based on gene expression profiling of cell line panels of breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancer in vitro. RESULTS: We determined the sets of genes that were differentially altered between eribulin and paclitaxel treatment in breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancer cell line panels. Our unsupervised clustering analyses revealed that expression profiles of gene sets altered with treatments were correlated with the in vitro antiproliferative activities of the drugs. Several tubulin isotypes had significantly lower expression in cell lines treated with eribulin compared to paclitaxel. Pathway enrichment analyses of gene sets revealed that the common pathways altered between treatments in the 3 cancer panels were related to cytoskeleton remodeling and cell cycle regulation. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) pathway was enriched in genes with significantly altered expression between the two drugs for breast and endometrial cancers, but not for ovarian cancer. Expression of genes from the EMT pathway correlated with eribulin sensitivity in breast cancer and with paclitaxel sensitivity in endometrial cancer. Alteration of expression profiles of EMT genes between sensitive and resistant cell lines allowed us to predict drug sensitivity for breast and endometrial cancers. CONCLUSION: Gene expression analysis showed that gene sets that were altered between eribulin and paclitaxel correlated with drug in vitro antiproliferative activities in breast and endometrial cancer cell line panels. Among the panels, breast cancer provided the strongest differentiation between eribulin and paclitaxel sensitivities based on gene expression. In addition, EMT genes were predictive of eribulin sensitivity in the breast and endometrial cancer panels.

Eribulin mesylate exerts specific gene expression changes in pericytes and shortens pericyte-driven capillary network in vitro.

BACKGROUND: Eribulin mesylate is a synthetic macrocyclic ketone analog of the marine sponge natural product halichondrin B. Eribulin is a tubulin-binding drug and approved in many countries worldwide for treatment of certain patients with advanced breast cancer. Here we investigated antiproliferative and antiangiogenic effects of eribulin on vascular cells, human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and human brain vascular pericytes (HBVPs), in vitro in comparison with another tubulin-binding drug, paclitaxel. METHODS: HUVECs and HBVPs were treated with either eribulin or paclitaxel and their antiproliferative effects were evaluated. Global gene expression profiling changes caused by drug treatments were studied using Affymetrix microarray platform and custom TaqMan Low Density Cards. To examine effects of the drugs on pericyte-driven in vitro angiogenesis, we compared lengths of capillary networks in co-cultures of HUVECs with HBVPs. RESULTS: Both eribulin and paclitaxel showed potent activities in in vitro proliferation of HUVECs and HBVPs, with the half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) in low- to sub-nmol/L concentrations. When gene expression changes were assessed in HUVECs, the majority of affected genes overlapped for both treatments (59%), while in HBVPs, altered gene signatures were drug-dependent and the overlap was limited to just 12%. In HBVPs, eribulin selectively affected 11 pathways (p < 0.01) such as Cell Cycle Control of Chromosomal Replication. In contrast, paclitaxel was tended to regulate 27 pathways such as PI3K/AKT. Only 5 pathways were commonly affected by both treatments. In in vitro pericyte-driven angiogenesis model, paclitaxel showed limited activity while eribulin shortened the formed capillary networks of HUVECs driven by HBVPs at low nmol/L concentrations starting at day 3 after treatments. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that pericytes, but not endothelial cells, responded differently, to two mechanistically-distinct tubulin-binding drugs, eribulin and paclitaxel. While eribulin and paclitaxel induced similar changes in gene expression in endothelial cells, in pericytes their altered gene expression was unique and drug-specific. In the functional endothelial-pericyte co-culture assay, eribulin, but not paclitaxel showed strong efficacy not only as a cytotoxic drug but also as a potent antivascular agent that affected pericyte-driven in vitro angiogenesis.

Novel small molecule inhibitors of TLR7 and TLR9: mechanism of action and efficacy in vivo.

The discovery that circulating nucleic acid-containing complexes in the serum of autoimmune lupus patients can stimulate B cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells via Toll-like receptors 7 and 9 suggested that agents that block these receptors might be useful therapeutics. We identified two compounds, AT791 {3-[4-(6-(3-(dimethylamino)propoxy)benzo[d]oxazol-2-yl)phenoxy]-N,N-dimethylpropan-1-amine} and E6446 {6-[3-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)propoxy)-2-(4-(3-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)propoxy)phenyl]benzo[d]oxazole}, that inhibit Toll-like receptor (TLR)7 and 9 signaling in a variety of human and mouse cell types and inhibit DNA-TLR9 interaction in vitro. When administered to mice, these compounds suppress responses to challenge doses of cytidine-phosphate-guanidine (CpG)-containing DNA, which stimulates TLR9. When given chronically in spontaneous mouse lupus models, E6446 slowed development of circulating antinuclear antibodies and had a modest effect on anti-double-stranded DNA titers but showed no observable impact on proteinuria or mortality. We discovered that the ability of AT791 and E6446 to inhibit TLR7 and 9 signaling depends on two properties: weak interaction with nucleic acids and high accumulation in the intracellular acidic compartments where TLR7 and 9 reside. Binding of the compounds to DNA prevents DNA-TLR9 interaction in vitro and modulates signaling in vivo. Our data also confirm an earlier report that this same mechanism may explain inhibition of TLR7 and 9 signaling by hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil; Sanofi-Aventis, Bridgewater, NJ), a drug commonly prescribed to treat lupus. Thus, very different structural classes of molecules can inhibit endosomal TLRs by essentially identical mechanisms of action, suggesting a general mechanism for targeting this group of TLRs.

Respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein-induced toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling is inhibited by the TLR4 antagonists Rhodobacter sphaeroides lipopolysaccharide and eritoran (E5564) and requires direct interaction with MD-2.

UNLABELLED: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a leading cause of infant mortality worldwide. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), a signaling receptor for structurally diverse microbe-associated molecular patterns, is activated by the RSV fusion (F) protein and by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in a CD14-dependent manner. TLR4 signaling by LPS also requires the presence of an additional protein, MD-2. Thus, it is possible that F protein-mediated TLR4 activation relies on MD-2 as well, although this hypothesis has not been formally tested. LPS-free RSV F protein was found to activate NF-κB in HEK293T transfectants that express wild-type (WT) TLR4 and CD14, but only when MD-2 was coexpressed. These findings were confirmed by measuring F-protein-induced interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß) mRNA in WT versus MD-2(-/-) macrophages, where MD-2(-/-) macrophages failed to show IL-1ß expression upon F-protein treatment, in contrast to the WT. Both Rhodobacter sphaeroides LPS and synthetic E5564 (eritoran), LPS antagonists that inhibit TLR4 signaling by binding a hydrophobic pocket in MD-2, significantly reduced RSV F-protein-mediated TLR4 activity in HEK293T-TLR4-CD14-MD-2 transfectants in a dose-dependent manner, while TLR4-independent NF-κB activation by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) was unaffected. In vitro coimmunoprecipitation studies confirmed a physical interaction between native RSV F protein and MD-2. Further, we demonstrated that the N-terminal domain of the F1 segment of RSV F protein interacts with MD-2. These data provide new insights into the importance of MD-2 in RSV F-protein-mediated TLR4 activation. Thus, targeting the interaction between MD-2 and RSV F protein may potentially lead to novel therapeutic approaches to help control RSV-induced inflammation and pathology. IMPORTANCE: This study shows for the first time that the fusion (F) protein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), a major cause of bronchiolitis and death, particularly in infants and young children, physically interacts with the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) coreceptor, MD-2, through its N-terminal domain. We show that F protein-induced TLR4 activation can be blocked by lipid A analog antagonists. This observation provides a strong experimental rationale for testing such antagonists in animal models of RSV infection for potential use in people.

E6201 [(3S,4R,5Z,8S,9S,11E)-14-(ethylamino)-8, 9,16-trihydroxy-3,4-dimethyl-3,4,9,19-tetrahydro-1H-2-benzoxacyclotetradecine-1,7(8H)-dione], a novel kinase inhibitor of mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase (MEK)-1 and MEK kinase-1: in vitro characterization of its anti-inflammatory and antihyperproliferative activities.

The goal of this study is to identify a novel inhibitor with anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties for the treatment of psoriasis. Compound f152A1 [(3S,5Z,8S,11E)-8,9,16-trihydroxy-14-methoxy-3-methyl-3,4,9,10-tetrahydro-1H-benzo[c][1]oxacyclotetradecine1,7(8H)-dione] was identified as the main active metabolite with strong inhibitory activity against tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) transcription in a fraction originated from the fermentation broth of the fungus Curvularia verruculosa. Although active in cell-based assays, f152A1 was unstable in plasma and liver microsome preparations, thus limiting its pharmaceutical utilization. To improve the metabolic properties of f152A1, a medicinal chemistry program was undertaken, resulting in the generation of over 400 analogs of f152A1. Eventually, E6201 [(3S,4R,5Z,8S,9S,11E)-14-(ethylamino)-8,9,16-trihydroxy-3,4-dimethyl-3,4,9,19-tetrahydro-1H-2-benzoxacyclotetradecine-1,7(8H)-dione] was identified as a promising analog in this series. In the present study, we characterized the in vitro activities of E6201 and discovered that the compound inhibits lipopolysaccharide-activated TNFalpha reporter activity in THP-1-33 cells with an IC(50) value of 50 nM and selectively inhibits mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase (MEK)-1 and MEK kinase-1 in cell-free biochemical assays. In addition, E6201 showed inhibitory activity in several other cell-based systems: 1) phosphorylation of c-jun N-terminal kinase and p38 MAPKs; 2) nuclear factor-kappaB and activated protein-1 activation in various cell types; 3) interleukin (IL)-2 production from human lymphocytes; 4) hyperproliferation of human keratinocytes; 5) IL-8 production from human keratinocytes; and 6) proinflammatory cytokine production from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Based on the data presented here, E6201 may be beneficial for treatment of inflammatory and hyperproliferative diseases such as psoriasis through its anti-inflammatory activities on immune cells and antihyperproliferative activities on keratinocytes.

Multi-hit inhibition of circulating and cell-associated components of the toll-like receptor 4 pathway by oxidized phospholipids.

OBJECTIVE: Oxidized phospholipids (OxPLs) that are abundant in atherosclerotic lesions are increasingly recognized as context-dependent lipid mediators demonstrating both pro- and antiinflammatory activities. Molecular mechanisms of their effects are largely unknown. Here we present novel information on the mechanisms whereby OxPLs modulate activation of TLR4 by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). METHODS AND RESULTS: We show, using several cell types and various inflammatory genes as readouts, that different classes and molecular species of OxPLs do not stimulate TLR4 but exert prominent inhibitory effects on LPS-induced reactions. Our data demonstrate that binding of OxPLs to the LPS-binding protein (LBP) and CD14 prevents recognition of LPS by these proteins, thus impairing activation of TLR4. In addition, OxPLs inhibited LBP- and CD14-independent activation of TLR4 by the synthetic TLR4 agonist E6020 indicating that in parallel with LBP and CD14, OxPLs target cell-associated steps in TLR4 cascade. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that OxPLs inhibit action of LPS via a multi-hit mechanism. These results support the notion that OxPLs are endogenous inhibitors of TLR4 produced in response to oxidative stress.

Toll-like receptor 2 antagonists. Part 1: preliminary SAR investigation of novel synthetic phospholipids.

Novel synthetic phospholipid compound 1 was discovered to be an antagonist of human toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) signaling. In a preliminary SAR campaign we synthesized several analogues of 1 and found that considerable structural changes could be made without loss of TLR2 antagonistic activity.

Inhibition of endotoxin response by e5564, a novel Toll-like receptor 4-directed endotoxin antagonist.

Alpha-D-glucopyranose,3-O-decyl-2-deoxy-6-O-[2-deoxy-3-O-[(3R)-3-methoxydecyl]-6-O-methyl-2-[[(11Z)-1-oxo-11-octadecenyl]amino]-4-O-phosphono-beta-D-glucopyranosyl]-2-[(1,3-dioxotetradecyl)amino]-1-(dihydrogen phosphate), tetrasodium salt (E5564) is a second-generation synthetic lipodisaccharide designed to antagonize the toxic effects of endotoxin, a major immunostimulatory component of the outer cell membrane of Gram negative bacteria. In vitro, E5564 dose dependently (nanomolar concentrations) inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-mediated activation of primary cultures of human myeloid cells and mouse tissue culture macrophage cell lines as well as human or animal whole blood as measured by production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and other cytokines. E5564 also blocked the ability of Gram negative bacteria to stimulate human cytokine production in whole blood. In vivo, E5564 blocked induction of LPS-induced cytokines and LPS or bacterial-induced lethality in primed mice. E5564 was devoid of agonistic activity when tested both in vitro and in vivo and has no antagonistic activity against Gram positive-mediated cellular activation at concentrations up to 1 microM. E5564 blocked LPS-mediated activation of nuclear factor-kappaB in toll-like receptor 4/MD-2-transfected cells. In a mouse macrophage cell line, activity of E5564 was independent of serum, suggesting that E5564 exerts its activity through the cell surface receptor(s) for LPS, without the need for serum LPS transfer proteins. Similar to (6-O-[2-deoxy-6-O-methyl-4-O-phosphono-3-O-[(R)-3-Z-dodec-5-endoyloxydecl]-2-[3-oxo-tetradecanoylamino]-beta-O-phosphono-alpha-D-glucopyranose tetrasodium salt (E5531), another lipid A-like antagonist, E5564 associates with plasma lipoproteins, causing low concentrations of E5564 to be quantitatively inactivated in a dose- and time-dependent manner. However, compared with E5531, E5564 is a more potent inhibitor of cytokine generation, and higher doses retain activity for durations likely sufficient to permit clinical application. These results indicate that E5564 is a potent antagonist of LPS and lacks agonistic activity in human and animal model systems, making it a potentially effective therapeutic agent for treatment of disease states caused by endotoxin.

Novel synthetic LPS receptor agonists boost systemic and mucosal antibody responses in mice.

Safe and cost-effective adjuvants are a critical requirement for subunit vaccine development. We report here the in vivo activity of a series of fully synthetic LPS receptor agonists that have been shown to activate NF-kappaB signaling through the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). These compounds boost antibody responses to protein antigens when coadministered at microgram doses in mice. At these dosage levels no adverse effects are observed. Antibody responses are largely IgG1, with enhanced IgG2a, and down-regulated IgE as compared to alum adjuvanted immunization. Stimulation of Th1 is confirmed by enhanced gamma-interferon production after in vitro antigen restimulation of spleen cells from mice immunized with the synthetic adjuvants. The adjuvants are active by both subcutaneous and intranasal routes of vaccine administration, and in the latter case can amplify both serum IgG and serum and mucosal IgA responses. The compounds must be administered at the same site with antigen to boost anti-vaccine antibody. These fully synthetic ligands of the innate immune system offer the potential for use as effective, safe, and nonbiologically-derived adjuvants.

A novel class of endotoxin receptor agonists with simplified structure, toll-like receptor 4-dependent immunostimulatory action, and adjuvant activity.

A series of novel, synthetic compounds containing lipids linked to a phosphate-containing acyclic backbone are shown to have similar biological properties to lipopolysaccharide (LPS). These compounds showed intrinsic agonistic properties when tested for their ability to stimulate tumor necrosis factor-alpha in human whole blood and interleukin-6 in U373 human glioblastoma cells without added LPS coreceptor CD14. The presence of the LPS antagonist E5564 completely blocked responses, suggesting that the novel compounds and LPS share a common mechanism of cell activation. Stereoselectivity of the molecules was observed in vitro; compounds with an R,R,R,R-configuration were strongly agonistic, whereas compounds with an R,S,S,R-configuration were much weaker in their activity on human whole blood and U373 cells. We also tested the effect of the compounds in cells transfected with the LPS receptor Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), with similar results, further supporting a shared mechanism with LPS. This was confirmed in vivo where the agonists failed to elicit cytokine responses in C3H/HeJ mice lacking TLR4 signaling. Because LPS-like molecules enhance immune responses, the compounds were mixed with tetanus toxoid and administered to mice in an immunization protocol to test for adjuvant activity. They enhanced the generation of specific antibodies against tetanus toxoid. Our results indicate that these unique compounds behave as agonists of TLR4, resulting in responses similar to those elicited by LPS. They display adjuvant activity in vivo and may be useful for the development of vaccine therapies.